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The Devious Tactics of Parasitic Algae: How These Organisms Hack Their Hosts for Nutrients and Reproduction

Parasitic algae are able to establish a parasitic relationship with their host, in which they benefit at the expense of the host. The mode of action of parasitic algae varies depending on the specific species, but there are a few common strategies that they use to establish and maintain their parasitic relationship with the host.

1. Attachment: Parasitic algae use specialized structures called haptera or haustoria to attach to the host plant or animal. Haptera are thin, hairlike structures that allow the algae to anchor themselves to the host, while haustoria are fingerlike projections that allow the algae to penetrate the host cells. The haptera or haustoria are typically secreted by the algae and are rich in enzymes that help the algae to attach to and penetrate the host cells.

2. Penetration: Once attached to the host, some parasitic algae are able to penetrate the host cells using haustoria or other specialized structures. This allows the algae to enter the host tissue and establish themselves within the host cells. The haustoria are able to penetrate the host cells by secreting enzymes that break down the cell walls or by physically forcing their way through the cell walls.

3. Nutrient uptake: Once inside the host cells, parasitic algae are able to extract nutrients from the host tissue. This can occur through the secretion of enzymes that break down host cell walls, allowing the algae to absorb the released nutrients. Some parasitic algae are also able to absorb nutrients directly from the host cells through specialized structures called absorptive hyphae.

4. Reproduction: Many parasitic algae are able to reproduce within the host tissue, allowing them to establish a long-term relationship with the host. This can be accomplished through the production of spores or through the division of cells within the host tissue. The spores produced by parasitic algae are typically resistant to desiccation and other environmental stresses, allowing them to survive outside the host until they find a new host to infect.

5. Host manipulation: Some parasitic algae are able to manipulate the host to their advantage. For example, some parasitic algae are able to alter the host's behavior or physiology in a way that benefits the algae. This can include changes in the host's reproductive behavior or immune response. For example, some parasitic algae are able to stimulate the host to produce more flowers or seeds, increasing the chances that the algae will be transmitted to a new host. Other parasitic algae are able to suppress the host's immune response, allowing them to establish a long-term relationship with the host without being detected or rejected.

here are some examples of parasitic algae, along with their species name, mode of action, and host:

1. Oedogonium cardiacum (green algae): Oedogonium cardiacum is a species of green algae that is known to parasitize the cells of Chara, a genus of freshwater algae. Oedogonium cardiacum attaches to the host cells using a specialized structure called a hapteron, and then penetrates the host cells using haustoria (small feeding structures). The hapteron and haustoria are rich in enzymes, including pectinases and cellulases, that help the algae to attach to and penetrate the host cells. Once inside the host cells, Oedogonium cardiacum is able to extract nutrients from the host tissue and reproduce within the host tissue.

2. Blastocystis hominis (single-celled algae): Blastocystis hominis is a species of single-celled algae that is known to parasitize the intestinal tracts of humans. Blastocystis hominis attaches to the intestinal epithelial cells using a specialized structure called a sucking disk, which is rich in enzymes that help the algae to attach to and penetrate the host cells. Once inside the host cells, Blastocystis hominis is able to extract nutrients from the host tissue and reproduce within the host tissue.

3. Cephaleuros virescens (red algae): Cephaleuros virescens is a species of red algae that is known to parasitize the leaves of tea plants (Camellia sinensis). Cephaleuros virescens attaches to the host plant using haustoria (small feeding structures), which are rich in enzymes that help the algae to attach to and penetrate the host cells. Once inside the host cells, Cephaleuros virescens is able to extract nutrients from the host tissue and reproduce within the host tissue.

4. Chlorochytrium aggregatum (green algae): Chlorochytrium aggregatum is a species of green algae that is known to parasitize the cells of diatoms. Chlorochytrium aggregatum attaches to the host cells using a specialized structure called a hapteron, and the host cells eventually rupture and release the Chlorochytrium aggregatum algae, which can then infect other host cells. The hapteron of Chlorochytrium aggregatum is rich in enzymes, including pect

Is that medical coding jobs not secure?

It is difficult to predict with certainty whether medical coding jobs will be safe in the future. However, there are a few factors that suggest that medical coding may continue to be a stable and in-demand profession: 

Medical coding plays a crucial role in the healthcare system, as it helps to ensure that medical records are accurate and up-to-date. This is important for a variety of purposes, including billing, research, and patient care. 

While automated systems and AI may be able to assist with certain aspects of medical coding, the complexity of the healthcare system and the need for human oversight and judgement suggest that medical coding jobs will still be necessary. 

The demand for healthcare services is expected to continue to grow as the population ages, which may lead to an increased demand for medical coding professionals. 

That being said, it is always a good idea for professionals to stay current on industry developments and continuously upskill in order to remain competitive in the job market.

Statics for JRF and ICAR UGC NET CSIR

Biosafety

• Genetic engineering is nothing new. Farmers have used cross-fertilization and selective breeding for millennia to alter plants and animals to promote desirable features that increase food production and meet other human requirements.
• Traditional fermentation methods have been used by artisans to turn milk into cheese, beer, and bread from grains. Such deliberate alteration of the natural environment has greatly improved human welfare. But in the last 30 years, advances in biotechnology have fundamentally changed our capacity to modify living things. 
• The ability to extract and transfer DNA strands and complete genes, which contain the biochemical instructions guiding an organism's development, from one species to another has been developed by scientists. 
• They are able to precisely modify the complex genetic makeup of individual living cells using cutting edge technology.
• For illustration, they can employ bacterial DNA to make corn resistant to herbicides or introduce genes from a coldwater fish into a tomato to produce a frost-resistant plant. Living modified organisms (LMOs), also referred to as genetically modified organisms (GMOs), are the end result (GMOs).
• A tomato that has had its genes altered through genetic engineering is referred to as a transgenic tomato or genetically modified tomato. The Flavr Savr tomato, which was created to have a longer shelf life, served as the first experimental genetically modified food and was available for a brief period of time starting on May 21, 1994.
• Cotton bt the only genetically modified crop now farmed in India is Bt cotton, which is spread across 10.8 million hectares. In India, bt cotton had first been utilised in 2002.
• For many individuals, this quickly developing knowledge poses a complex set of moral, environmental, social, and health concerns. They claim that because contemporary biotechnology is still so young, there are many unanswered questions regarding how its products could function, develop, and interact with other species. 
• Could GM crops' capacity for tolerating pesticides, for instance, be transferred to related wild species? Could plants that have undergone genetic modification to stave off pests also damage helpful insects? Could a GMO harm ecosystems that are rich in biological diversity because to its improved competitiveness?

Biosafety and precaution

        The term "biosafety" refers to a variety of practices, guidelines, and laws for reducing the dangers that biotechnology could bring to the environment and public health. For biotechnology to provide the most advantages while posing the fewest hazards, reliable and practical protections for GMOs must be established. As soon as possible, while biotechnology is still a developing field, these protections must be put in place. Industry, governments, and civil society are currently promoting biosafety in various ways. The Cartagena Protocol has made a special contribution to ensuring global biosafety by:

“an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements”.

The Biosafety Protocol in action

An Advance Informed Agreement procedure

• The most rigorous procedures are reserved for GMOs that are to be introduced intentionally into the environment. These include seeds, live fish and other organisms that are destined to grow and that have the potential to pass their modified genes on to succeeding generations.
• The exporter starts by giving the government of the importing country detailed written information, including a description of the organism, in advance of the shipment. 
• A Competent National Authority in the importing country acknowledges receipt of this information within 90 days and then explicitly authorizes the shipment within 270 days or states its reasons for rejecting it – although the absence of a response is not to be interpreted as implying consent.

A simplified system for agricultural commodities

• Bulk exports of genetically modified maize, soybeans, and other agricultural products meant for direct use as food or feed or for processing rather than as seeds for fresh crop growth make up the largest category of GMOs in international trade.
• The Protocol establishes a less complicated mechanism in place of mandating the adoption of the Advance Informed Agreement procedure for certain commodities. Governments must inform the international community of their choice to allow these products for domestic use via the Biosafety ClearingHouse under this arrangement. They must also give thorough details regarding their choice.
• Additionally, nations may decide whether or not to import certain goods based on their domestic legal framework, but they must then declare these choices through the Clearing-House. The Protocol aims to keep the additional costs for commodities producers and dealers to a minimum while preserving the openness of the global trading system.

Risk assessments

• While it is the responsibility of the country considering allowing the import of a GMO to ensure that a risk assessment is carried out, it has the authority to demand that the exporter perform the job or foot the bill. For many developing nations, this is especially crucial.

Risk management and emergency procedures

• No human endeavour or piece of technology is fully risk-free. People adopt new technology because they think the advantages could exceed the disadvantages.
• When a government learns that GMOs under its control may cross international boundaries owing to unlawful commerce or release into the environment, the Protocol mandates that government notify and consult any other impacted or potentially affected nations. 
• They will be able to take emergency action or other necessary action as a result. To enhance international coordination, governments must create formal points of contact during emergencies.

others - Export documentation, The Biosafety ClearingHouse (BCH), Capacity-building and finance, Public awareness and participation

Governments cannot achieve biosafety on their own: they need the active involvement and cooperation of the other stakeholders.

ORGANIC FARMING

 ORGANIC FARMING

·         Organic farming is a type of farming system which was used to increase productivity with minimum reliance on chemicals, while at the same time conserving resources.

·         Organic farming nurtures the soil rather than just a particular crop.

·         In Organic farming, the use of synthetic chemicals is minimized. There is a greater reliance on conservation and use of all resources available on the farm, including animal, human, and plant wastes.

·         The goal of organic farming is to achieve stability without sacrificing high production and without polluting water, soil, and air.

COMPOSTING

·         Composting is the controlled aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter into a stable, humus like product called Compost.

·         Composting is a big chemical process in which microorganisms decompose organic waste matters like crop residue, kitchen wastes and cow dung into a soil improving product.

·         The final product of Composting is a uniform, black mass of rotten, nutrient rich manure.

·         Composting is essentially the same process as natural decomposition except that it is enhanced and accelerated by mixing organic waste with other ingredients to optimize microbial growth.

·         Composting making is one of the most effective processes for recycling organic wastes intended for use in agriculture. It is a natural process that turns the waste material into a valuable natural fertilizer.

Composting methods

1)     Windrow method

2)     Aerated static pile

3)     Box composting

4)     Pit composting

5)     Vermicomposting

Substrates used for Composting

·         The best compost is a mixture of “green” and “brown” materials.

·         “Greens” are young, sappy materials that rot quickly and are high in nitrogen, like:

ü  Grass clippings

ü  Poultry manures

ü  Young weeds and plants

ü  Fruits and Vegetable craps

ü  Fish meal

ü  Coffee grounds

ü  Alfalfa meals

ü  Tea bags and Tea leaves

ü  Cut flower

ü  Soybean meal

ü  Bedding from Herbivorous pets

·         “Browns” are organic materials made from tougher materials, have usually dried, and are high in carbon, like:

ü  Fall leaves

ü  Old straw

ü  Wood chips

ü  Twigs

ü  Saw dust

ü  Cardboard

ü  Egg shells

ü  Paper/Paper bags

ü  Tree bark

·         Experts suggest a 30:1 ratio of carbon to nitrogen organic materials when making compost.

Composting process

1)     Preparation of pots or cement tanks

2)     Addition of substrates or waste materials (Waste should be used in single or double or triple for composting)

3)     Inoculation of Microorganisms.

4)     Composting of wastes for 90 days.

5)     Checking of various parameters during Composting at 30 days interval for 90 days (30^th Day, 60^th Day and 90^th Day).

6)     During Composting, special care should be taken to prevent the compost tank from various insects and pests.

Parameters to be checked during Composting

1)     Temperature, pH and Moisture

2)     Organic carbon content (Before composting high & after composting becomes low)

3)     Nitrogen content (Before composting low & after composting becomes high)

4)     Phosphorous content (Before composting low & after composting becomes high)

5)     Potassium content (Before composting low & after composting becomes high)

6)     Enzymes content (Before composting low & after composting becomes high)

7)     Minerals content (Before composting low & after composting becomes high)

8)     Cellulose content (Before composting high & after composting becomes low)

9)     Hemicellulose content (Before composting high & after composting becomes low)

10) Lignin content (Before composting high & after composting becomes low)

Advantages of Composting

1)     Supplies nutrients.

2)     Improves microbial activity, which helps release soil nutrients for use by plants.

3)     Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers which are costly and potentially damaging to the environment.

4)     Increases the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen, improving physical properties of soil and allowing higher response to chemical fertilizers and higher crop yields.

5)     Improves soil structure, improving drainage and making tillage easier.

6)     Increases the water-holding capacity of soil.

7)     Helps check wind erosion by improving soil structure.

QUALITY CONTROL OF BIOINOCULANTS

 QUALITY CONTROL OF BIOINOCULANTS

·         Inoculant quality refers to the number of specific effective organisms in the inoculant.

·         The Biofertilizer quality can be tested by using Serial dilution method.

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) prescribed quality for Bioinoculants

Many private companies are producing biofertilizer in the country and they have been found vary in their quality. Hence, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has prescribed certain specification for the inoculants to maintain good quality. They are as follows.

·         The Bioinoculant unit should contain adequate Microbiological lab and qualified Microbiologist.

·         The inoculants should be a Carrier or Liquid based one.

·         The inoculants should contain a minimum of 10⁸ cells/g or ml with 15 days of manufacture and 10⁷ cells/g or ml within 15 days of expiry.

·         The inoculants should have a maximum expiry period of 6 months from the date of manufacture.

·         The inoculants should not have any contamination with other microorganisms.

·         The pH of the inoculants should be between 6.0 – 7.5.

·         The carrier material should be in the form of powder passing through 17-106 µ sieve that is peat, lignite, peat soil and humus materials neutralized with CaCO₃ and sterilized.

·         The manufacture should control the quality of the broth and maintain records of test.

·         The inoculants should be packed in 50-75 µ low-density polythene bags.

·         Each pocket should give the following information’s.

a)     Name of product, specific name

b)     Name and address of the manufacturer

c)      Type of carrier/liquid

d)     Batch and code number

e)     Date of manufacture

f)       Date of expiry

g)     Net quantity

h)     Storage instructions words under ‘Store in a cool place away from direct sun and heat’.

·         The above items should be printed on coloured ink background.

·         The pocket may be marked with ISI certification mark.